TOEFL Reading 5

 

[1] At the beginning of the 13th century, a tribe of hunting and gathering nomads arrived in Mesoamerica, which is the south-central area of what we now call Mexico. These people were called the Aztecs. It is said that, upon their arrival at Lake Texcoco, they saw an eagle perched on a cactus and accepted it as a sign to settle there. 300 years later, this group of people had managed to establish a mighty empire, ruling over a population in the millions, from their architecturally wondrous capital city of Tenochtitlan. What made this possible was, in part, the Aztecs ingenuity in agriculture. While they didn’t enjoy the benefits of the wheel or the beast of burden, they still managed to use the land around the lakes of central Mexico to support their population through several methods.
 

[2] The first, and simplest form of agriculture is known as rainfall cultivation. This method involves cultivating only some of the land reserved for agriculture. The uncultivated land was left to fallow, which means the farming plots were left empty to collect rainfall, which helped to revitalize the soil for future crops. This prevented soil from being depleted of nutrients through overfarming. This process was abandoned as the population of the empire grew and required larger crops.
 

[3] In the hilly areas unsuitable for farming by traditional methods, particularly in the highlands, the Aztecs used terrace agriculture. Several stone walls were painstakingly built along the contours of the hillside, one above the other. The earth in each level created by these walls was filled in and flattened, creating a stepped, or terraced, arrangement of land. In this way, a sloped area was transformed into flat steps of land suitable for agriculture. Different types of terraces were used in different circumstances. On steeper slopes, they used hillslope contour terraces, with stone walls, as previously described. On gentler slopes, they created semi-terraces. These were built with less sturdy walls made of Maguey plants instead of stones. Finally, in the least steep areas, they used cross-channel terraces.
 

[4] The third method of agriculture used by the Aztecs, primarily in the empire’s valley regions, was irrigation farming. This was accomplished by using dams and channels to divert water from natural springs to the fields. What this meant was that crops depended less on rainfall, and thus the Aztecs had greater control over their own agricultural success. Even in dry years, they were able to harvest food for their population. In fact, the Aztecs didn’t invent irrigation farming, but further developed the systems that were already in place. Their achievements in this area involved taking irrigation farming to a whole new level, creating an intricate network of canals, and even redirecting part of the Cuauhtitlan River to bring water to some of their larger plots of agricultural land.
 

[5] Not all of the Aztecs’ agricultural lands were in regions that required careful management of water; some were in the swampy lands around lakes that were too wet for traditional agriculture. In these regions, they created what they are most famous for, agriculturally speaking: the “chinampas.” Chinampas were fashioned by laying down alternating layers of mud and plant matter on the bottom of the swamp or lake. Enough layers were laid down to create raised beds rising about a meter above the surface of the water. These raised beds – the chinampas – were between 2 and 4 meters wide and up to 40 meters long. The chinampas were built in rows, separated by narrow channels of water, and to tend their crops the Aztecs would move along these channels in canoes. Built within the water, and partly from organic matter, the chinampas were incredibly fertile. They yielded, on average, seven crops each year, which provided an amazing amount of food per hectare. In fact, the Aztecs managed to grow a surplus of food which they were able to sell to others.

1 Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

While they didn’t enjoy the benefits of the wheel or the beast of burden, they still managed to use the land around the lakes of central Mexico to support their population through several methods.

• Because the Aztecs were able grow food around the Mexican lakes, they did not need wheels or animals to do work.
• The Aztecs didn’t have the wheel or animals to help them in agriculture, so their population relied on food from the lakes of central Mexico.
• Supporting a population located around lakes requires effective use of land, technology, and animals.
• The Aztecs were successful in agriculture even though they didn’t have use of the wheel and work animals.

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: d
Your Selection: Not Answered

(A) is wrong because the word “While” does not establish a cause or reason relationship between the ideas in the sentence; thus the sentence does not say that growing food meant that the Aztecs did not need wheels or animals (beast of burden).

(B) The sentence does not clearly say that relying on the lakes was because (expressed as “so”) they didn’t have wheels or animals, and the sentence doesn’t say they took food from the lakes, but that they used the land around the lakes. For these reasons, (B) is wrong.

(C) is incorrect because the sentence doesn’t give a general statement about supporting a population around lakes, and it doesn’t suggest that technology and animals were important to the Aztecs success.

(D) is correct. The second half of the sentence (“managed to use the land… to support their population”) means they were successful in agriculture, and the relationship between the two idea of the sentence is properly expressed by “even though.”

2 Examine the four █ in the selection below and indicate at which block the following sentence could be inserted into the passage:

Also called “rainfed agriculture,” this is a fairly simple technique that is still used widely today.

 

The first form of agriculture is known as rainfall cultivation. █ [A] This method involves cultivating only some of the land reserved for agriculture. █ [B] The uncultivated land was left to fallow, which means the farming plots were left empty to collect rainfall, which helped to revitalize the soil for future crops. █ [C] This prevented soil from being depleted of nutrients through overfarming. █ [D] This process was abandoned as the population of the empire grew and required larger crops..

• [A]
• [B]
• [C]
• [D]

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: a
Your Selection: Not Answered

(A) is correct. The inserted sentence mentions an alternative name for this method, so it should follow the first mention in the paragraph of the method’s name; this is also a very general sentence, and so it should come before the more specific explanation of the method.

(B) Inserting the sentence here would break the coherence between the sentences, which are focused on uncultivated land, so (B) is wrong.

(C) Inserting the sentence here would break the coherence formed by “this prevented,” which refers to what has been described in the previous sentence, so (C) is incorrect.

(D) Inserting the sentence here would be strange, as it would mention the method being widely used today before mentioning the process was abandoned by the Aztecs, so (D) is wrong.

3 What can be inferred about the method of agriculture known as “terrace agriculture?”

• It was developed by people who were not allowed to live in flat areas.
• It was more labor intensive than rainfall cultivation.
• It allowed the Aztecs to grow types of food they couldn’t grow with simpler methods.
• It required the use of less water than other types of agriculture.

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: b
Your Selection: Not Answered

(A) is incorrect. While terrace agriculture wasn’t used in flat areas, nothing suggests that certain people were not allowed to live in those areas and so developed new techniques.

(B) is correct. Terrace agriculture involved stone walls being “painstakingly built;” this requires more work (i.e. it is more “labor intensive”) than rainfall cultivation, which doesn’t involve such difficult building.

(C) is wrong because nothing is mentioned about the types of food that Aztecs grew this way, only about the location of the farming plots.

(D) is incorrect because nothing suggests that hillside terraces required less water than other types of agriculture.

4 The word 'these' in paragraph 3 refers to:

• the Aztecs
• slopes
• stone walls
• semi-terraces

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: d
Your Selection: Not Answered

(A) is incorrect. We can’t say that the Aztecs “were built,” although the Aztecs did the building of the walls.

(B) is wrong because slopes were not built; rather, the semi-terraces were built on slopes.

(C) The semi-terraces being discussed were not built with stone walls but with plant-based walls, so (C) is incorrect.

(D) is correct because semi-terraces “were built” with less sturdy walls.

5 What types of method would be used for areas where the slope of the land was least severe?

• contour terraces
• semi-terraces
• cross-channel terraces
• flattened terraces

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: c
Your Selection: Not Answered

(A) The question is asking about the method on the “least severe” slope, but contour terraces are used for the opposite, i.e. the “steeper slopes,” so (A) is wrong.

(B) is incorrect. Semi-terraces were used for “gentler slopes,” but this is not the least severe slope mentioned.

(C) is correct. The final sentence mentions cross-channel terraces being used for the “least steep” areas, which means the slope of the land was “least severe.”

(D) is incorrect because “flattened terraces” are not identified as a distinct form of terraces.

6 According to paragraph 4, which of the following is NOT true about irrigation farming, as practiced by the Aztecs?

• Farmers were not as reliant on rainfall.
• They created a complex system of canals.
• They were the first to use it in the region.
• It was used mostly in valleys.

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: c
Your Selection: Not Answered

(A) is wrong. The paragraph states clearly that “crops depended less on rainfall.”

(B) is incorrect because the paragraph mentions that they created “an intricate network of canals.”

(C) is correct. In fact, as the paragraph says, “the Aztecs didn’t invent irrigation farming, but further developed the systems that were already in place;” this clearly means they were not the first to use it in the region.

(D) is wrong because the first sentence of the paragraph mentions “primarily in the empire’s valley regions.”

7 Why does the author mention “redirecting part of the Cuauhtitlan River” in paragraph 4?

• to provide evidence of the size of the Aztecs’ area
• to compare the size of the Aztecs’ large canals with a natural water feature
• to emphasize how great their achievements with irrigation were
• to identify one of the reasons why irrigation farming eventually became insufficient

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: c
Your Selection: Not Answered

(A) is incorrect. The paragraph is about irrigation farming, and nothing is mentioned about the size of the Aztecs’ area (although it was, in fact, quite large).

(B) The purpose is not to show the size of the canals, but the magnitude of the Aztecs achievement, so (B) is wrong.

(C) is correct. The sentence is focused on the “achievements” of the Aztecs with irrigation farming, and the word “even” is used before “redirecting…” to show emphasis that redirecting the river was a major accomplishment.

(D) is wrong because the author never mentions that irrigation farming because insufficient.

8 The word 'fashioned' in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to:

• constructed
• altered
• popularized
• demolished

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: a
Your Selection: Not Answered

(A) is correct. The sentence is explaining how the chinampas were built, or constructed, and in this context “fashion” can be used as a verb with this meaning.

(B) The sentence explains the construction of the chinampas, not how they were changed or “altered,” so (B) is incorrect.

(C) is wrong. While “fashion” might seem related to “popularity,” the sentence is not describing how the chinampas became popular, but rather how they were constructed.

(D) is incorrect because “demolished” means destroyed, and clearly the sentence is not explaining how the chinampas were destroyed, but rather the exact opposite.

9 According to paragraph 5, the chinampas were able to produce a lot of food because

• they were raised above the level of the surrounding land
• they could only be accessed by canoe
• they were arranged in long rows
• they were built partly from plant matter within water

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: d
Your Selection: Not Answered

(A) It is true that the chinampas were raised above the level of the surrounding swamps, but that was simply necessary for them to support land plants; the actual level doesn’t relate to amount of food production, so (A) is wrong.

(B) is incorrect. The chinampas were tended by Aztecs in canoes, but that is simply because they were surrounded by water; canoe access doesn’t itself help the chinampas produce a lot of food.

(C) is incorrect. The arrangement of the chinampas was simply convenient; most crops are planted in rows, simply for convenience.

(D) is correct. The paragraph states “Built within the water, and partly from organic matter [plant matter], the chinampas were incredibly fertile.” The next sentence explains that being fertile means they could produce a lot of crops each year and “an amazing amount of food.”

10 Complete the table by matching the phrases below

Directions: Select the appropriate phrases from the answer choices and match them to the agricultural method to which they relate. Some of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points.

Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, drag it back. To review the passage, click VIEW TEXT.

 

Terrace agriculture	Chinampas
C.Used in the highlands of the empire F.Involved several types depending on exact shape of land	A.Used in swampy areas D.Allowed the Aztecs to grow enough food to sell G.Built from mud

 

• A.Used in swampy areas
• B.Adopted from European farmers
• C.Used in the highlands of the empire
• D.Allowed the Aztecs to grow enough food to sell
• E.Generated a lot of waste
• F.Involved several types depending on exact shape of land
• G.Built from mud

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 3 points.

Correct Answer: c,f|a,d,g
Your Selection: |

(A) relates to CHINAMPAS; the first sentence of paragraph 5 indicates this.

(B) is not used because nowhere in the passage are methods of European farmers mentioned.

(C) matches TERRACE AGRICULTURE, as indicated by the first sentence of paragraph 3.

(D) matches CHINAMPAS; the last sentence of paragraph 5 indicates that “the Aztecs managed to grow a surplus of food which they were able to sell to others.”

(E) is not used because nowhere in the passage does the author mention how much waste the different methods produced.

(F) relates to TERRACE AGRICULTURE, because paragraph 3 explains that three different types of terraces were used depending on the slope.

(G) relates to CHINAMPAS. Paragraph 5 clearly states that chinampas were built by laying down mud and organic matter; terraces, however, were built with stones or plants.

 

[1] The Agricultural Revolutions occurred between 2000 and 6000 BC. It is believed that due to climate change, people moved from animal hunting to gathering and agriculture. About 10,000 years ago, some human groups began to raise animals and cultivate domesticated plants. Over the next thousand years, most people became food producers, although hunting and gathering were ongoing. The Agricultural Revolution is the period in history when food production was prevalent in human activity. It occurred over a period of time as food gathering led to food production over several generations. We believe the process began when foragers started to scatter seeds and clear weeds to grow crops they enjoyed using for food. It’s possible that non-settled groups behaved in this way, although some families probably settled permanently to produce this food in the long term.

[2] The discovery of specialized stone tools indicated the new food-producing practices: polished or ground stone heads to work the soil, sharp stone chips embedded in bone or wooden handles for cutting grass, and stone mortars for grain production. Early farmers used fire to clear fields of shrubs. Trees were burned to make clearings and the ashes were used as a natural fertilizer.

[3] Over time, gatherers selected the highest-yielding strains of plants for food cultivation. The earliest proof of agriculture lies in the Middle East, where it was noted that wheat and barley were cultivated by 8000BC. Farmers began to alternate the cultivation of grains and pulses, such as lentils and peas, to maintain fertility. Gradually, domesticated plants spread from the Middle East to other regions and there was some exchange of crops and techniques. However, it is believed that agriculture developed independently in most countries.

[4] The oldest traces of food production in North Africa date back to 8000 BC in Easter Sahara. Wheat, barley, goat, and sheep cultivation are evident and a move of farming activities to the Nile Valley is evident when the climate became drier by 5000BC. Farming began in Greece in 6000BC and agriculture appears to have started in Central Europe around 4000BC. Agriculture spread even further in Europe over the next thousand years as more forested areas were cleared and climate changed. By 2600BC, ox-drawn plows were used in Central Europe. It appears that the Mediterranean region boasted many crops and agricultural techniques. South Sahara favoured domestic grains and in eastern Africa, Wheat and Barley. In the Middle East and equatorial West Africa, yams became an early domestic crop. The cultivation of domestic rice began in China and Northern India sometime between 10,000 and 5,000 BC, as the climate favoured the development of this crop. Cultivation of hyacinth beans, green and black grams originated in India by 2000 BC.

[5] The cultivation of corn started in the Tehuacán Valley of Mexico after 8000 B.C.E. as there was a shift from hunting to food production. In Peru, food production of potatoes and quinoa began, and in other parts of America, there was the cultivation of tomatoes, peppers, squash, and potatoes. The root crop manioc became a staple food after 1500 BC and spread to the Caribbean. Around this same era, we note the domestication of animals both for hunting and the supply of milk and energy.

[6] After 7000 BC, there was a decline in animal hunting as shown by the decrease in the number of gazelle bones discovered in the Middle East. However, people continued to consume meat as sheep and goats replaced gazelles. People gradually began to cultivate specific breeds of animals not only for their meat but also for their coats and milk production. Animal droppings were used as fertilizer. Prior to 3000 BC, domestic animals began to evolve from wilder species, such as cattle, donkeys, buffalo, and Zebuo in India, horses, and camels as well as chickens and pigs. Tamed animals became vital for the agricultural cycle of grain farmers. In America, llamas provide meat and wool; turkeys and guinea pigs provided meat.

[7] In conclusion, the gradual adoption of food production changed several parts of the world. Agriculture caused a gradual population increase, perhaps to 10 million by 5000 B.C.E., and then a further escalation to about 50 million and 100 million by 1000 B.C.E.

1 Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about the first cultivation of crops?

• Both non-settled groups of people and settled groups started to cultivate crops by sowing seeds of crops they wanted for food.
• Settled groups started to cultivate crops by sowing seeds of crops they wanted for food.
• Non-settled groups or nomads started to cultivate crops by sowing seeds of crops they wanted for food.
• People had no choice but to start spreading seeds for crops they enjoyed for food.

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: a
Your Selection: Not Answered

a is the correct answer because there is evidence to support this statement in paragraph 1 (lines 9 to 13).

b is not correct because it omits 'non-settled groups'.
c is not correct because it omits 'settled groups'.
d there is no reference to this point in the passage

2 According to paragraph 2, what was the effect of stone tools?

• Stone Age people could now cultivate the land, cut grass and produce grain.
• Stone Age people could now produce food.
• Stone Age people could now clear fields of shrubs.
• Stone Age people could now burn trees to make clearing for farming.

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: a
Your Selection: Not Answered

a is the correct answer because there is evidence to support this statement in paragraph 2
(lines 1 to 4).
b is incorrect because the statement is too broad.
c is incorrect because line 5 states that fire was used to clear fields of shrubs.
d is incorrect because stone age tools had no connection with clearing for farming.

3 According to paragraph 3, all of the following statements are true, EXCEPT:

• The highest-yielding strains were selected for food cultivation and production.
• The purpose of alternating crops was to maintain variety.
• Agriculture gradually spread from the Middle East to other regions.
• Most agriculture developed independently.

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: b
Your Selection: Not Answered

(b) is correct because there is no reference to this point in the passage. The text "Farmers began to alternate the cultivation of grains and pulses, such as lentils and peas, to maintain fertility." only implies that the purpose of alternating crops was to maintain fertility.

(c) is also mentioned here "Gradually, domesticated plants spread from the Middle East to other regions and there was some exchange of crops and techniques"

(a) and (d) are incorrect because they are all true statements from the passage

4 Paragraph 4 supports which of the following statements about the development of food production:

• Ox-drawn ploughs was a major factor in the development of food production in Africa, Asia and Europe.
• Crop exchange was a major factor in the development of food production in Africa, Asia and Europe.
• Climate was a major factor in the development of food production in Africa, Asia and Europe.
• Animal and plant cultivation were major factors in the development of food production in Africa, Asia and Europe.

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: c
Your Selection: Not Answered

c is the correct answer because there is evidence to support this statement in paragraph 4
(lines 3 and 4).
a is incorrect because ox-drawn ploughs were not used in all of these regions, according to the paragraph.
b is incorrect because crop-exchange was not used in all of these regions, according to the paragraph.
d is incorrect because there is no inference that animal and plant cultivation were major factors in food development in these regions, according to the paragraph.

5 In paragraph 5, why does the author mention the Tehuacán Valley of Mexico?

• Because there was a shift from hunting to the domestication of animals.
• Because along with Peru, corn was first cultivated in 8000BC.
• Because there was a shift from hunting to the cultivation of potatoes and quinoa.
• Because there was a shift from hunting to the cultivation of corn around 8000BC.

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: d
Your Selection: Not Answered

d is the correct answer because the statement in paragraph 5 states "The cultivation of corn started in Tehuacán Valley of Mexico after 8000 B.C.E. as there was a shift from hunting to food production."

a the sentence is inaccurate
b is incorrect because the cultivation of potatoes and quinoa was not the replacement of hunting
c is incorrect because the question is asking about "The Tehuacán Valley of Mexico" which cultivated corn, not potatoes.

6 The word 'breeds' in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to:

• Types
• Species
• Families
• Groups

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: a
Your Selection: Not Answered

a is the correct answer because it is closest in meaning to the word 'breeds' ('types/kinds/sorts'). A breed is a variety of domestic animal that has been selectively bred by humans to have particular characteristics that others of its species don't have. For example, Chihuahua and Great Dane are breeds of dogs. They're the same species - they're both dogs - but they're different breeds.

b this word means families or groups. A species is a particular kind of animal - tigers are a species, humans are a species, killer whales are a species, etc.

c this word means groups related by blood.
d this word means clans/teams.

7 Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the following sentence from paragraph 5?

Around this same era, we note the domestication of animals both for hunting and the supply of milk and energy.

• Before this time, we see animals being tamed to help in hunting and providing milk and energy.
• At about this time, we see animals being hunted and providing milk and energy.
• After this period, we see animals being tamed to help in hunting and providing milk and energy.
• At about this time, we see animals being tamed to help in hunting and providing milk and energy.

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: d
Your Selection: Not Answered

d is the correct answer because it is closest in meaning to the sample sentence

a this is incorrect as the word 'before' changes the meaning of the sentence.
b this is incorrect as the word 'after' changes the meaning of the sentence.
c this is incorrect as the sentence changes the meaning of the text.

8 According to the passage, which of the following is true?

• The Agricultural Revolution occurred due to climate change favouring the cultivation of plants.
• The Agricultural Revolution occurred due to the development of tools and fertilizer.
• The Agricultural Revolution occurred due to the domestication of animals for agriculture.
• The Agricultural Revolution occurred due to foraging and food development techniques being improved.

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: a
Your Selection: Not Answered

a is the correct answer because it is stated in the first paragraph, lines 1 to 3.

b this is incorrect as tools were only one element in the development of agriculture.
c this is incorrect as animal breeding was only one other element in the development of agriculture, not the primary reason for its development.
d this is incorrect as these techniques were element but not the primary source of development of agriculture.

9 Examine the four █ in the selection below and indicate at which block the following sentence could be inserted into the passage:

Due to the geographical isolation of the Americas, domestic species could not be borrowed from anywhere else.

 

█ [A] Prior to 3000 BC, domestic animals began to evolve from wilder species, such as cattle, donkeys, buffalo and Zebuo in India, horse and camels as well as chickens and pigs. █ [B] Tamed animals became vital for the agricultural cycle of grain farmers. █ [C] In America, llamas provide meat and wool; turkeys and guinea pigs provided meat. █ [D] .

• [A]
• [B]
• [C]
• [D]

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 1 point.

Correct Answer: d
Your Selection: Not Answered

d is correct because it is supported by the previous sentence (C). The words 'anywhere else' refer to anywhere outside of 'America'.

10Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, drag it back. To review the passage, click VIEW TEXT.

 

It is believed that due to climate change, people moved from animal hunting to gathering and agriculture.

• B. Farmers learned to improve fertility by alternating grains and pulses.
• C. Thanks to the clearing of forests, more farming developed in Central Europe after 4000BC.
• E. Agriculture helped progress the human population.

 

• A. Crop cultivation and animal breeding occurred as far back as 8000BC.
• B. Farmers learned to improve fertility by alternating grains and pulses.
• C. Thanks to the clearing of forests, more farming developed in Central Europe after 4000BC.
• D. Wheat and Barley were early domestic crops in The Middle East.
• E. Agriculture helped progress the human population.
• F. Due to a warm, wet climate, rice was first cultivated in China.

ANSWER EXPLANATION

Question is worth: 2 points.

Correct Answer: b,c,e
Your Selection: Not Answered

B,C and E are the correct answers because there is evidence in the passage supporting each point

B> Paragraphs 3, lines 2 to 3.
C> Paragraph 4, lines 4 to 8.
E> Paragraph 7, lines 1 to 3.

A. This point is inaccurate.
D. It is a minor fact. Only the main points that push the narrative of the summary are correct answers.
F. There no evidence in the passage about a warm and wet climate.